Ecotoxicological Effects of Heavy Metals on Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Across Its Life Cycle and Health Risk Assessment in Soils Around Pb–Zn Mine

Agricultural soils surrounding mining areas are often polluted with heavy metals (HMs) due to long-term mining activities and high geological background values. In this study, we investigated the distribution and transport of Cu, Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb, and As in a soil-rice system near a century-old mining site, evaluated their toxic effects on rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i> L.) throughout the growth period, and assessed the associated health risks using the Nemerow index and potential ecological risk index. The results showed that HM contents in rice grown in contaminated soils were significantly higher than in the control. HMs mainly accumulated in roots, with the lowest contents in grains. Cd exhibited the highest enrichment capacity, with bioconcentration factors of 0.79, 1.04, and 1.95 at the tillering, heading, and maturity stages, respectively, and its accumulation increased with rice growth. Transport from stems to leaves was relatively strong. HM exposure significantly inhibited rice growth, reducing plant height, biomass, tiller number, and panicle emergence. In addition, oxidative stress indicators and antioxidant enzyme activities, as well as root amino acid exudation, were markedly altered under HM stress. According to soil-rice HM contents, the pollution level of agricultural soils reached a high class, with As, Pb, Cd, and Zn as the main contributors. The potential ecological risk reached a moderate level, with Cd identified as the dominant factor. Notably, the health risks to children were substantially higher than those to adults, and Monte Carlo simulation indicated a 100% probability of non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for adults and children. The above results highlighting the urgent need for risk management in mining-affected regions.