Wave-inspired MEW scaffolds with tunable mechanics supporting early ligament-like tissue formation

A bstract Ligament injuries remain a major clinical challenge due to the limited intrinsic healing capacity of these fibrous tissues. Here, we demonstrate the use of melt electrowriting (MEW) to fabricate poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffolds with precisely engineered wave architectures that mimic the hierarchical organization and nonlinear mechanics of native ligaments. By tuning fiber geometry, we achieved scaffolds with distinct mechanical behaviors ranging from highly compliant to structurally resilient, enabling architecture-driven modulation of elastic modulus and fatigue response. Mechanical testing revealed that wave-patterned scaffolds dissipate energy efficiently and adapt structurally under cyclic loading, reproducing key features of ligament-like viscoelasticity. When cultured with human anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) cells, the scaffolds supported adhesion, proliferation, and spatially organized alignment, together with the expression of ligament-associated markers. The results demonstrate that MEW scaffolds provide a favorable environment for ligament cell adhesion and matrix synthesis, while highlighting the strong influence of geometry on cell organization and early matrix production. Overall, this study establishes wave-based MEW architectures as a versatile platform to guide ligament tissue formation.