Inkjet-printed 2D-to-3D transforming flexible electrochemical sensors for 3D cellular organization

Abstract Recent advancements in 3D cellular morphology open new possibilities for in vitro monitoring that better reflect the complexity of real tissue environments. To support this, the development of electrode systems featuring 3D architectures is essential. In this study, we engineered inkjet-printed 2D-to-3D transforming electrodes capable of organizing 3D neuronal cells. The electrodes were implemented as electrochemical dopamine sensors enabling spatially resolved sensing in 3D spheroidal cells. This study demonstrates a cleanroom-free, flexible-substrate fabrication approach that provides a promising platform for advanced bioanalytical studies in complex 3D cell systems. Graphical abstract