The role of philosophical inquiry in cultivating critical thinking among students: A scoping review

Background: Critical thinking is increasingly acknowledged as an essential skill for students in the 21st century. Consequently, pedagogical approaches that foster critical thinking are of considerable scholarly interest. Philosophical inquiry, particularly outside the domain of religious education, has been identified as a potential method for cultivating these skills. Objective: This scoping review systematically maps the extant literature concerning the application of philosophical methods and interventions to foster critical thinking skills in students, specifically excluding implementations within religious education. The review investigates the types of interventions employed, the populations studied, the outcomes assessed, and the reported efficacy of these approaches. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using the Scopus and Web of Science databases, encompassing publications from January 1 2014, to December 31 2024. Inclusion criteria stated that studies examine the use of philosophical methods (e.g. Socratic questioning, communities of inquiry, Philosophy for Children) to enhance critical thinking in students at any educational level, outside of religious instruction. Extracted data included study characteristics, participant demographics, intervention specifics, outcome measures, and principal findings. A narrative synthesis was conducted. Results: Thirty-three studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. These studies represented a broad spectrum of educational levels, from preschool through to higher education, and diverse geographical regions across Asia, Europe, North America, and Africa. Interventions varied in duration and specific philosophical approach but frequently involved methodologies such as Philosophy for Children (P4C), Socratic methods, and facilitated community of inquiry discussions, often integrated into various curricula. The majority of studies reported positive impacts on various facets of critical thinking, including reasoning abilities, argumentation, communication, and metacognitive awareness, alongside notable effects on non-cognitive skills and evidence of skill transfer across different contexts. Conclusion: The accumulated evidence indicates that philosophical inquiry can be a valuable pedagogical tool for cultivating critical thinking skills in students across a variety of educational settings and age cohorts. Further investigation is warranted to refine intervention designs, ascertain long-term effects, explore optimal implementation conditions, and further investigate mechanisms of skill transfer.