From reef ecology to industry 4.0: Strategic, smart and sustainable framework for crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak management

Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) continue to be one of the biggest dangers to Indo-Pacific coral reefs, causing widespread coral mortality, a drop in biodiversity, and a decline in the bottom lines of fishing and tourism industries. Despite their value, traditional management techniques, including chemical injections, manual removal, and predator protection, are resource intensive and have limited long-term efficacy. This analysis offers a strategic, smart, and sustainable approach for managing outbreaks by fusing new Industry 4.0 technologies with ecological and biological knowledge of COTS. By systematically synthesizing articles published between 2015 and 2025, four thematic clusters were identified: biology and ecology, traditional management, algorithm-based monitoring, and advanced detection technology. Innovation in Industry 4.0, including autonomous underwater vehicles, IoT-enabled sensor networks, environmental DNA monitoring, artificial intelligence, blockchain, and swarm robotics, demonstrates paradigm shifts in scalability, accuracy, and adaptability for reef protection. However, the current research remains fragmented, often isolating biology from technological applications. This study proposed an integrated approach linking ecological triggers with data-driven tools to enable proactive detection, scalable intervention, and cross-regional coordination and named it Strategic, Smart and Sustainable (S3-COTS). This framework contributes to a conceptual blueprint for advancing coral reef conservation through digital transformation and enhancing resilience against outbreaks in the face of climate change. • Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks remain a major ecological and economic threat. • Traditional control methods are resource-intensive with limited long-term success. • This study systematically synthesizes COTS biology and Industry 4.0 technologies. • A Strategic, Smart, and Sustainable (S3-COTS) framework is proposed for outbreak management. • The framework integrates ecology and digital tools to enhance reef resilience globally.