Traditional ecological knowledge in volcanic risk governance: Rethinking human–volcano relationships

Volcanic eruptions have caused significant damage and loss of life, particularly in Indonesia. This study examines the role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in reducing disaster risks from Mount Kelud's eruptions, focusing on non-technological early warning systems, infrastructure design, and cultural rituals. Data were collected through field observations and interviews with four customary leaders, community figures, monitoring officers, and residents. The findings reveal that communities rely on natural signs such as animal behaviour, changes in water patterns, and local patrols for early warnings. Adaptive strategies include designated evacuation routes and steeply pitched roofs to reduce ash load. The Ritual Sesaji serves as a medium for intergenerational disaster education. This study highlights TEK's potential to strengthen community resilience and recommends integrating it with modern technology to develop more adaptive and sustainable mitigation systems. • Ethnography reveals TEK mechanisms for volcano risk reduction. • Natural signs provide effective early warnings for Kelud eruptions. • Steeply pitched roofs are vernacular adaptation to ash loads. • Ritual Sesaji embeds disaster education and social cohesion. • Hybrid sistem jaga integrates TEK with scientific monitoring.