Benefits-risks analysis of drinking water systems in Small and Rural Indigenous (SRI) communities in Canada

Small and Rural Indigenous (SRI) communities face significant barriers, including geographic isolation, inadequate infrastructure, and financial constraints, which limit their access to safe drinking water. Chemical pollutants from natural and anthropogenic sources contribute to water pollution and in some cases may be linked to numerous cancer (CR) and non-cancer risks (NCR). Improving water systems (WSs) can reduce disease prevalence and enhance public health and community well-being. These improvements may also lead to higher water quality perception and potential economic returns. Therefore, evaluating the risks and benefits of WSs is critical. This study developed a risk management framework to identify and mitigate water quality risks in SRI communities. The framework was developed in three phases and was tested on six SRI communities in Canada. Pollutants such as arsenic, fluoride, and manganese were considered as their occurrence and linkage to chronic and acute health effects. Overall, the larger community (WS5) has 31.63 % more benefits on average compared to the smaller communities. Higher levels of fluoride and manganese primarily drove the benefit-to-risk ratio (BRR) of WS4, while elevated arsenic levels influenced the BRR of WS6. Additionally, the BRR was influenced by the communities’ perception of water quality, which was relatively low, with only 60 % of residents satisfied. The proposed methodology and the demonstrated case studies provide valuable guidance for conducting future research and developing effective water management practices for SRI communities across Canada. • Integrated risk-benefit assessment framework was proposed. • Water quality, social, and economic factors were considered. • The framework was tested on six drinking water systems for validation. • Water systems with higher population outweigh risk by 94 %. • The framework support SRI community rightsholder and others water stakeholders to prioritize risks and maximize benefits.