Cultural variations in the relationship between school belonging and social-emotional skills: a multi-group structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis

Abstract Background Social-emotional skills are vital for student development but show a marked global decline during secondary education, underscoring the need for effective interventions. While school belonging is hypothesized to support such development, whether its role is universal or culturally contingent remains debated. This study investigates the associations between school belonging and social-emotional skills across diverse cultural contexts. Methods We utilized data from 527,255 students in 74 countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022. Ten dimensions of social-emotional skills were examined. Cultural regions were classified based on prevailing value orientations. Multi-group structural equation modeling was employed to test and compare the strength of associations between school belonging and these skills across eight cultural regions, allowing for a systematic examination of cross-cultural variation. Results A positive global association was found between school belonging and social-emotional skills. However, substantial cross-cultural variation was observed. The strongest associations were identified in harmony-embeddedness cultural regions (e.g., Latin America, South/Southeast Asia). In contrast, the associations were minimal in autonomy-oriented regions (e.g., Western Europe, English-speaking countries) and Confucian societies. Conclusions The findings challenge the assumption of universality in school belonging interventions. Cultural values act as critical contextual factors that amplify, suppress, or redirect the developmental impact of belonging. This necessitates culturally responsive approaches to fostering social-emotional skills, moving beyond one-size-fits-all interventions. Understanding these diverse pathways is essential for promoting student well-being across different cultural settings.