Archaeometric Characterization of the Ferrería Style Pottery (El Carmen de Viboral, Colombia): Raw Materials and Firing Conditions

A multi-analytical study was conducted on archaeological pottery samples from El Carmen de Viboral, Antioquia, Colombia (5th century BCE–3rd century CE), belonging to the Ferrería style, which is associated with the region's pre-Hispanic agricultural societies. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA-DTG), Vickers microhardness measurements, and Mössbauer spectroscopy were employed to determine the chemical composition, morphological, and mineralogical characteristics of the pottery sherds. The results indicate that the pottery was primarily made from non-calcareous clays. The presence of mineral phases, such as silicates, is characteristic of a low-temperature firing process. Additionally, the identified silicate phases contain iron in both the divalent (+2) and trivalent (+3) oxidation states, suggesting variable redox conditions during the manufacturing process.