An Overview of Emerging Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances; Environmental Occurrence, Health Effects, Treatment Approaches and Sustainable Alternatives

ABSTRACT Emerging Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have become a growing concern due to their widespread presence, persistence, and potential health hazards. They are broadly classified into polymeric and non‐polymeric PFAS. While regulatory initiatives have limited the use of long‐chain PFAS such as perfluorooctanoic acid (C8) (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (C8) (PFOS), industries like food packaging, textiles, firefighting foam, semiconductors, and electronics are now shifting toward short‐chain PFAS and novel fluorine‐free alternatives. However, these short‐chain PFAS have high mobility, environmental persistence, and potential bioaccumulation, raising concern about their long‐term effects on human health, wildlife, and ecosystems. These chemicals have been found in several environmental matrices and also in various food products. Exposure to these PFAS, mainly through polluted drinking water, food items, and consumer products, leads to potential health hazards, including liver, kidney, and nerve damage, endocrine disruptions, immune system dysfunction, developmental issues, and increased risk of cancer. Several destructive and nondestructive treatment techniques, including adsorption, membrane technology, advanced oxidation process, photocatalytic degradation, and microbial degradation, have been explored to remove PFAS from various matrices. In addition, scientists and policymakers globally are promoting stricter regulations and the development of sustainable alternatives. This review provides a comprehensive overview of PFAS occurrence, classification, regulatory limits, health impacts, current removal strategies, and highlights various fluorine‐free alternatives.