Twice upon a home: Energy use, emissions and inequality across primary and second homes

Residential energy consumption plays an essential role in mitigating climate change. An energy transition has the potential to alleviate socioeconomic disparities, although it can also lead to an unfair distribution of costs and benefits. The residential energy transition is already progressing in many countries, yet there remains a research gap regarding the participation of diverse population groups and the contribution of second homes to overall household energy consumption and emissions. We applied a novel approach, integrating multiple data sources, to calculate residential energy consumption and emissions for a sample of Finnish households, including those arising from second homes. Regression analysis was then employed to examine the influence of household and building-specific factors on energy consumption and emissions. Regression models initially indicated a positive association between income and per-capita energy use and emissions. However, after accounting for building characteristics, income was negatively associated with per-capita energy consumption. These findings suggest that middle- and high-income households tend to occupy more energy-efficient dwellings than low-income households. Furthermore, while rural households exhibited higher per-capita energy consumption than urban households, differences in emissions were less pronounced. Second homes significantly increased energy use and emissions. The results indicate that certain population groups and areas may be excluded from the benefits of the residential energy transition, warranting further research into the specific circumstances of diverse groups. Future policies aimed at promoting residential energy transition should prioritize support for low-income households and incorporate measures addressing energy consumption and emissions from second homes.