Vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K as molecular modulators: Integrative roles in precision medicine, nutrigenomics, therapy, and disease prevention

Vitamins are no longer viewed just as essential micronutrients but as active molecular regulators that play a role in shaping health, disease susceptibility, and therapeutic outcomes. As cofactors, antioxidants, epigenetic modulators, and signaling molecules, vitamins coordinate key biochemical pathways that sustain cellular homeostasis and counteract metabolic, inflammatory, and degenerative processes. Molecular studies have indicated that Vitamins A, C, D, E, K, and the B-complex impact chromatin architecture, transcription factor binding, mitochondrial metabolism, and fine-tuning of the immune system. Through signaling cascades and gene networks such as Vitamin D receptor (VDR), retinoic acid receptor/RXR, Nrf2, ten–eleven translocation enzymes, and one-carbon metabolic pathways, vitamins control DNA methylation, oxidative balance, and cellular differentiation, thereby shaping precision disease prevention and personalized treatment responses. Progress in precision medicine and nutrigenomics further emphasizes gene–vitamin interactions that regulate individual variability in absorption, activation, and biological efficacy. Genetic variants in methylenetetrahydrofolate, VDR, SLC23A1, and SLC19A1 influence vitamin-dependent pathways and form the basis for biomarker-guided supplementation strategies. Multiomics platforms, including genomics, metabolomics, and single-cell profiling, now allow characterization of vitamin-sensitive molecular signatures across cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, metabolic, and oncological diseases. Targeted applications of vitamins – such as high-dose Vitamin D in immune dysfunction and oncology, high-dose Vitamin C in tumor redox modulation, and B vitamins in methylation disorders – establish promising therapeutic potential. Cutting-edge technologies, including artificial intelligence-driven risk forecasts and omics-integrated profiling, improve the precision of vitamin-based interventions. Comprehensively, these developments position vitamins as potent molecular modulators vital to modern preventive health strategies and personalized therapeutic frameworks, thus now shifting the paradigm toward disease prevention, targeted therapy, and improved clinical outcomes.