Modelling with purpose: from ambiguity to impact in instructional coaching for digital education

Purpose This study aims to explore how instructional coaches (ICs) implement in-class modelling as a professional development (PD) strategy to support digital education. It investigates their perceptions of the activity's usefulness, the challenges they encounter and the influence of leadership clarity on their effectiveness. Design/methodology/approach A convergent mixed-methods design was used, combining survey data from 87 ICs with qualitative insights from 5 focus groups. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, guided by Schön's reflective practice framework. Findings Although ICs often report strong management support and adequate resources, their work is hindered by time limits and unclear roles. In-class modelling is common but inconsistently applied, often without clear goals or active teacher input. Logistical issues – such as unstructured pre-discussions and informal debriefings – add complexity. Leadership decisions on modelling are frequently top-down and disconnected from pedagogy, leading some ICs to view them as undermining rather than supporting teacher agency. Research limitations/implications The study is context-specific and cross-sectional. Future research should examine longitudinal impacts and explore coaching effectiveness across diverse contexts. Practical implications To improve the impact of in-class modelling, school leaders must provide clearer role definitions, structured planning tools and support for reflective dialogue. PD efforts should actively involve teachers, promoting collaboration and ownership of digital integration. Originality/value This study provides empirical insight into how ICs apply in-class modelling in digital education initiatives. It highlights the gap between theoretically established best practices and their practical implementation.