Teaching to Think: Exploring How University Teachers Develop Students' Critical Thinking

Download PDF Article Download Graphical Abstract Teaching to Think: Exploring How University Teachers Develop Students’ Critical Thinking Abstract The present study explores university teachers’ understanding and experiences in developing critical thinking among students in higher education. To investigate how educators perceive and encourage critical thinking in the classroom, a qualitative phenomenological research approach was employed. Fourteen higher education teachers, lecturers, and university professors from different cities and disciplines at the tertiary level were selected for this purposive sample. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to achieve a more nuanced understanding of how they conceptualise and practice challenging the critical thinking concept. Data were transcribed and subject to a thematic analysis aimed at identifying patterns/themes. The results showed that the majority of teachers had a good understanding of the concept of critical thinking and were well aware of its significance in fostering intellectual development, improving problem-solving ability, and encouraging independent learning. Collaborators described using class discussions, question-and-answer sessions, cases, and reflective activities to strengthen students' analysis and evaluation skills. Despite this will and intention, teachers pointed out contextual-institutional obstacles that do not always consistently foster critical thinking. In general, the research highlights how important teachers are and can be (or, on the other hand, are not) in the development of critical thinking skills through GE and calls for continual provision of support and training by HE institutions to enhance this crucial skill. Keywords Critical Thinking, University Teachers, Higher Education, Teaching Strategies, Phenomenological Study JEL Classification I20, I21 1. Introduction Developing critical thinking (CT) among university students is a fundamental goal of higher education, as it enables learners to analyse knowledge deeply, make informed decisions, and apply reasoning in real-life situations. Critical thinking involves more than memorisation; students must engage with information and assess its veracity (Athreya & Mouza, 2016). John Dewey, in his groundbreaking book How We Think (1910), first articulated a definition of CT through the concept of reflective thinking, which has shaped much of our current understanding of it (Hitchcock, 2015). The word “critical” comes from the Greek “Kritikos,” which means the art of judging or discerning ideas. Unlike popular images of criticism, CT is positive in that it encourages rational problem-solving and informed judgment (Lau, 2011; Lipman, 1995; Islam, 2015). Bloom’s Taxonomy works with the cognitive domain of CT, and underlying this is high-level thinking—analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—that is important for constructive intelligence (Duron, 2006). Through critical thinking, students can consider evidence and recognise that assumptions can be questioned rather than simply accepting ideas (Delecce & Pisano, 2021). To navigate challenging issues and to solve everyday problems, CT enables individuals to think critically, thereby making it a necessary ingredient for academic and workplace success (Enciso, 2017; Moore, 2013). Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills, Illustrating the Hierarchy of Learning Objectives Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/blooms-taxonomy.html Teachers are central in the fostering of CT, including designing lessons and facilitating discussions, allowing students to reflect on, analyse and apply knowledge (Almulla, 2018; Wang, S. K., Hsu, H. Y., Reeves, T. C., & Coster, D. C. 2014). Hands-on activities such as comparing and contrasting information, case studies' analysis, and introducing authentic problems develop critical thinking skills (Black, 2005; Lai, 2011). However, evidence indicates that teachers have a limited understanding of the systematic promotion of CT, despite recognising its significance (Saleh, 2019). Contextual barriers, including time constraints, inflexible curricula, and varied student abilities, also prevent CT from being consistently applied in the classroom (Yuan & Stepleton, 2020). In Nigerian higher education, little research has been done on how university teachers view and incorporate CT in their teaching. This lacuna calls for profound investigations into teachers’ conceptions, experiences and approaches to developing students' critical thinking. It is important to focus on teachers’ perceptions of how to improve pedagogy and develop students as independent, reflective, and critical readers. To assist with this investigation, the inquiry sought to investigate how university teachers perceive critical thinking and their strategies for enhancing students’ CT. More specifically, it investigated how teachers define critical thinking and the methods they use to facilitate its development. Accordingly, two main questions informed the study: (1) What is teachers’ perception of critical thinking? And how do they see and support the development of essential thinking in their students? While addressing these objectives and questions, the research offers a well-defined approach for exploring teachers’ perceptions, experiences, and practices of critical thinking in the higher education context. 2. Literature Review Critical thinking is an essential learning outcome in higher education. Critical thinking has emerged as a crucial higher education learning outcome for both external audiences concerned with accountability issues and colleges and universities themselves. The voluntary accountability system, one of the most recent national measures to address accountability pressures, requires campuses to administer one of three standardised tests to monitor and report students' learning gains in critical thinking and written communication. In a poll of businesses, the Association of American Institutions and Universities found that 73% of companies wanted colleges to place greater emphasis on critical thinking and analytical reasoning. In a recent study of colleges and universities, 74% of respondents agreed that critical thinking was a core learning aim for the campus's general education curriculum (Stassen, 2011). Developing critical thinking skills in university is about learning how to think rather than what to think. It involves a process of deliberation, debate, and persuasion that shapes values and attitudes. Through the practice of critical thinking, students can move beyond mere disagreement and constructively evaluate alternative perspectives, building upon their doubts (Shriner, 2006). Higher education institutions are increasingly cognisant of the need to assess fundamental abilities so that graduating students can think and read critically, investigate and utilise information, analyse quantitative data, and write effectively and fluently. Accreditation criteria and the labour market emphasise mastery of the fundamental abilities of critical thinking, information literacy, critical reading, mathematical reasoning, and writing. The university education programme is one of the most important training programmes in a person's life. Objective thinking is the introduction to abstract thinking and the teenage thinking that comes with entering the workforce and acquiring substantial responsibilities in life. It should be noted that students training in critical thinking skills at university are always looking for and assessing reasons in real life, as well as rejecting misleading prejudices (Kong, 2014). Lai (2011) discussed that colleges and universities are essential for helping students develop their critical thinking abilities. Higher education institutions can create curricula that prioritise critical thinking skills and provide students with opportunities to apply them across a variety of situations. It may entail including case studies, simulations, and problem-based teaching approaches in interdisciplinary subjects. Universities could adopt strategies that encourage critical thinking, like active learning, peer reviewing, and collaborative learning. They can also provide feedback to students who are not very proficient at thinking critically. Giuffré and Ratto (2014) further explain that higher education can help develop a professor’s critical thinking and pedagogical skills. It may involve offering mentoring workshops, granting access to information and resources, and promoting a culture of inquiry. Additionally, higher education can create more opportunities for students to engage in research that requires thoughtful analysis, including the design and conduct of trials, interpretation of findings, and reporting of results. Higher education can also promote a more interdisciplinary approach that exposes learners to different worldviews and ways of thinking, enabling them to grasp broad and emerging issues and cultivate the communication and rhetorical skills necessary. In general, higher education may do a lot to foster critical thinking abilities in students, preparing them for work or life, and to develop a more competent and conscious larger society. 3. Methodology To address the research questions, a qualitative research design was employed to examine teachers' experiences with critical thinking. A phenomenological approach was chosen because its philosophy emphasises the exploration and interpretation of people’s life worlds in relation to the meanings and experiences individuals attach to them. This approach was appropriate for capturing university teachers’ nuanced understandings and day-to-day practices related to the development of students’ critical thinking. 3.1. Research design and participants Fourteen university instructors were intentionally selected from multiple universities across various cities and departments at the tertiary level. A non-probabilistic purposive sampling technique was employed to include participants with pertinent expertise and experience in the subject matter. The diversity in both academic disciplines and institutional contexts allowed for a comprehensive exploration of the varying perspectives on how critical thinking is understood and taught within Nigerian higher education. 3.2. Data collection procedures Prior to data collection, the interview questions were reviewed for validity in consultation with a research mentor, and mock interviews were conducted to refine the phrasing and sequencing of the questions. The researcher personally conducted all in-depth semi-structured interviews, which explored participants' perceptions of critical thinking, the strategies they employed to cultivate it in their classrooms, and the contextual factors that either facilitated or hindered these efforts. Confidentiality was assured, and participants were encouraged to share their views openly and honestly. 3.3. Data analysis The analysis followed (Braun & Clarke, 2014) six-phase approach. After transcribing the interviews, the researcher read the transcripts multiple times to become familiar with the data. Initial codes were generated inductively, focusing on meaningful units related to teachers' conceptions, strategies, and challenges. These codes were compared across transcripts, and similar codes were grouped into provisional categories. The categories were then reviewed and refined into broader themes that reflected recurring ideas across participants. The themes were further defined and supported with representative quotations. Throughout this iterative process, the researcher maintained analytical memos to document emerging interpretations and decisions. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed thematically following the framework outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). In accordance with their guidelines, the analysis involved several stages: familiarisation with the data, initial coding, theme identification, theme review and refinement, and, ultimately, defining and naming the themes. Through this iterative process, patterns within the data were uncovered and interpreted as clear responses to how teachers conceptualise and promote critical thinking. To enhance credibility and dependability, several strategies were employed. First, researcher reflexivity was maintained through analytical memos that documented assumptions and potential biases. Second, peer debriefing was conducted with a research mentor who reviewed selected transcripts, codes, and themes to ensure coherence between the data and its interpretation. Third, an audit trail detailing coding decisions, theme development, and subsequent revisions was maintained. Together, these procedures strengthened the rigor and transparency of the qualitative analysis. 4. Results The thematic analysis revealed five key themes that highlight how university teachers understand, value, and strive to foster critical thinking in their students, as well as the contextual challenges they face. These themes are: (1) the concept of critical thinking, (2) the importance of critical thinking, (3) strategies for developing critical thinking, (4) challenges in promoting critical thinking, and (5) teachers’ experiences and adaptations. In the subsequent sections, each theme is discussed, supported by illustrative quotations that reflect how teachers articulated their views and practices. 4.1. Concept of Critical Thinking The study's results revealed that people perceive critical thinking as a cognitive process that combines reasoning, analysing, and evaluating to make logical judgments. They considered elements such as mental discipline, a clear and impartial thought process, and rational decision-making in the spring (Lipman, 1995; Islam, 2015). The concurrent views of the majority indicated that critical thinking reflects higher-order/convergent thinking skills or the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy—analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. They felt it was an approach to understanding, challenging, and evaluating ideas to figure out what made sense and why. For example, one participant defined critical thinking as “the intellectually disciplined process of conceptualising, applying, analysing, and synthesising and/or evaluating information from reasoning, experience, or reflection.” Others have noted its pragmatic aspect as a tool for scrutinizing every step of an idea or process (beginning with ideas and ending in the proof) for efficacy and precision. 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