Methodologies to explore the cognitive effects of music in rituals: Implications for studying ancient ritual activities

Music is present in all human societies and has long been related to rituals. Our definition of ritual follows Nicholas M. Hobson and includes predetermined behavioural sequences that are rigid, formal and repetitive, with elements that have no clear instrumental purpose and are part of a broader system of symbolism and meaning. There are sacred and not sacred rituals. Despite the connection between ritual and music, the examination of music in ritual contexts has been neglected in most scientific disciplines related to neuroscience and psychology. In this article, we review studies on the cognitive effects of present-day ritualistic music. By emphasising the methodological characteristics of these studies, we propose several considerations for future scientific investigations on the topic. Specifically, we observe that the function of music in modern rituals may be reduced to modulating emotions during the event and/or inducing alterations in the participants’ mental states. Based on this observation, we suggest a series of target cognitive and physiological measures to lead future research on the subject. Also, we suggest ways in which brain activity can be measured and analysed in response to different ritualistic musical stimuli. We argue that exploring how music in present-day ritualistic contexts affects brain activity, cognition, behaviour, and physiology will deepen our understanding of ancient ritual activity.