Parental migration and left-behind children: Lessons learned from the Indonesian family life survey

Left-behind children of migrant workers face distinct challenges that may affect their emotional well-being and development. This study examined the impact of parental migration on the happiness, depressive tendencies, and cognitive development of Indonesian children, using two waves of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS4 and IFLS5). Cross-sectional analyses included 1,000–1,800 participants in IFLS 4 and 350–420 in IFLS 5, while longitudinal analyses linking both waves involved 1,300– 2,200 participants. Data were analyzed using chi-square tests, ANOVA, and panel models in Stata. Cross-sectional results showed no differences in happiness or hedonic well-being by migration status. In IFLS 4, children of international migrant fathers reported fewer depressive symptoms (M = 1.41 vs. 4.01 for non-migrants) and higher cognitive scores (M = 10.47 vs. 9.18). In IFLS 5, significant effects were limited to maternal migration for depression (M = 13.00 vs. 16.10) and paternal migration for cognition (M = 9.22 vs. 7.98). Longitudinal analyses revealed more consistent patterns: children of international migrants, particularly mothers, showed lower depressive tendencies (M = 5.04 vs. 8.84) and higher cognitive development (M = 9.71 vs. 8.84), while happiness remained unaffected. These findings highlight both the risks and potential protective effects of parental migration on left-behind children.