Why and how they listen: on the (im)possibility of inclusion in the global governance of education

International Organisations in the field of education face increasing demands for greater inclusivity by and of those affected by their work. IOs respond by carrying out various forms of consultations in order to maintain their legitimacy, which leads to tensions with the largely expert-driven, ‘technocratic’ mode of operation of most IOs and potentially disrupts their organisational coherence and identity. This paper examines how UNESCO and OECD navigate this tension in two recent landmark initiatives: UNESCO’s Futures of Education (2019–2022) and OECD’s Future of Education and Skills 2030 (2015-present). We argue that IOs favour ‘additive’ over ‘disruptive’ inclusion to maintain organisational coherence, raising questions about the possibility of ‘disruptive’ inclusion within global governance.