Sustainable ciprofloxacin removal using muscovite clay: A techno-economic and eco-toxicological study via MOGWO/RSM-ANN

This study investigates the remediation of Ciprofloxacin (CPx) contaminated water by adsorption using muscovite clay (Musc-MC), followed by an eco-toxicological evaluation of the treated water for potential application in crop irrigation. To improve the adsorption efficiency of CPx, two optimization approaches, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network integrated with Multi-Objective Grey Wolf Optimization (ANN/MOGWO), were applied and compared. Using the Box–Behnken design (BBD), the RSM approach was applied under fixed conditions of 0.0525 g adsorbent mass and 120 min contact time, evaluated across five pH levels (3, 5, 7, 9, and 11), and yielded an average predicted CPx removal efficiency of 59.12%. Although the ANN/MOGWO model achieved a lower removal efficiency of 40.77%, it identified conditions that are more practical and cost-effective for real-world applications—namely, 2.5 g of adsorbent mass and 60 min of contact time across a broad pH range [3-11], which represent the optimized values of the variables to achieve maximum removal efficiency. These conditions are less demanding and more scalable than those required by RSM. A techno-economic analysis further demonstrated that ANN/MOGWO reduces material consumption and energy inputs while maintaining acceptable removal performance, making it a more viable and flexible option for large-scale wastewater treatment systems. Ecotoxicity assessment showed minimal oxidative stress from CPx exposure, with peroxidase activity remaining above 97.59%. Seedlings irrigated with treated water exhibited lower phenolic content (235–500 µg GAE/mL) compared to the control (850 µg GAE/mL), indicating reduced antioxidant demand. This was consistent with a decline in DPPH antioxidant activity. These findings confirm that muscovite clay is an effective and environmentally safe adsorbent for CPx removal, supporting its use in agricultural water reuse. • Muscovite clay demonstrates high efficiency in removing ciprofloxacin from contaminated water. • A dual optimization approach (RSM and ANN/MOGWO) enhances both adsorption performance and scalability. • RSM/MOGWO reached 44.14% removal at 20 g, 46.42 min, pH 3–11; ANN/MOGWO achieved 40.77% at 2.5 g, 60 min, pH 3–11. • Eco-toxicological tests confirm that the treated water is safe for agricultural use, supporting healthy wheat germination. • Muscovite clay is an environmentally friendly and sustainable solution for large-scale water remediation.