Riding into the future: What drives the use of robotaxis in San Francisco?

Robotaxis are now available for consumer service in San Francisco. Yet, a notable research gap remains in examining behavioural intentions and use behaviour of robotaxis in areas where these services are commercially available. Using survey data collected from San Francisco residents (n = 517), this paper examines factors that influence individuals’ behavioural intentions and actual use of robotaxis in California. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to test the measurement model, while partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the hypothesized structural path relationships between the predictors, behavioural intention and actual use of robotaxis. Additionally, multi-group analysis allowed for the examination of differences between groups varying in socio-demographic factors (e.g., gender, age, income) and mobility behaviour (e.g., use of robotaxis, ride-hailing, private vehicle). Almost half of the respondents were undecided about robotaxis being good value for money, with the neutral response rate for this question being the highest among all surveyed (43 %). Notably, respondents showed the lowest level of agreement with the statement on the importance of robotaxis among people important to them (23 % agreement). This suggests that, even in an innovation hub like San Francisco, social acceptance may lag behind individual interest and policy enthusiasm. Our study further shows that intention to use robotaxis significantly affects actual use behaviour for those having already taken robotaxi rides while personal innovativeness, hedonic motivation and social influence are the strongest predictors of behavioural intention to use. Overall, robotaxis seem to already be integrating into the urban landscape of San Francisco residents.