Characterization and antibiogram of bacteria isolated from second-hand undergarments sold in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

Second-hand undergarments, or fairly used underwear, refer to clothing items such as panties and boxers imported from countries including the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and various parts of Asia after prior use by the original owners. These garments are widely used but may harbor microbial contaminants. This study aimed to assess the microbial composition of fairly used underwear sold in the Port Harcourt metropolis. A total of six (6) swab samples were collected from measured areas of second-hand undergarments (male and female) sold in three different markets in Port Harcourt, Mile 1, Mile 3, and Rumuokoro, and analyzed for microbial composition using standard microbiological techniques. Results showed that the Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count (THBC) ranged from 4.40 × 10⁴ to 9.40 × 10⁴ CFU/cm² for female underwear and from 2.40 × 10⁴ to 9.77 × 10⁴ CFU/cm² for male underwear. A total of eight (8) bacterial species belonging to six (6) main genera were identified: Staphylococcus spp. (42.8%), Bacillus spp. (23.8%), Micrococcus terrus (19.5%), Pseudomonas sp. (4.76%), Klebsiella sp. (4.7%), and Paenibacillus sp. (4.7%). Staphylococcus spp. had the highest percentage occurrence, followed by Bacillus spp. (23.8%) and Micrococcus terrus (19.5%), while Paenibacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Klebsiella sp. each had 4.7%. Male and female underwear samples from Mile 1 Market exhibited higher microbial loads compared to those from Rumuokoro and Mile 3 Markets. Antibiotic susceptibility tests revealed that Staphylococcus aureus was susceptible to ciprofloxacin and cefuroxime but resistant to rifampin, streptomycin, and azithromycin. Bacillus spp. was susceptible to ciprofloxacin and rifampin but resistant to azithromycin, gentamicin, and ceftazidime. It is recommended that government regulatory agencies minimize the importation of second-hand underwear and ensure that approved items are properly disinfected and laundered before sale to prevent potential public health risks.