How gamification goes wrong: understanding the maladaptive goal orientation in gamified learning systems

Purpose Gamification is a valuable educational tool. However, research indicates that while gamified learning systems cater to users' gaming motivations, they may induce maladaptive usage. Integrating the gamification affordances-psychological outcomes-behavioral outcomes paradigm and goal orientation theory, this study examines maladaptive goal orientation processes and their unintended psychological and behavioral impacts. Design/methodology/approach We tested the model through a scenario-based approach in the context of Duolingo, which is a leading and highly influential mobile language learning application. Data from 100 forum users who discussed score-boosting strategies were collected via online questionnaires and analyzed with structural equation modeling. Findings Gamification affordances include instruction design (i.e. instant individualistic feedback and instant competitive feedback) and interface design (i.e. multisensory interaction). Results reveal that, compared to instant individualistic feedback, instant competitive feedback is more likely to foster maladaptive psychological outcomes, namely, competence feeling and focused attention on game goals. Multisensory interaction shows no significant effect on competence feeling, whereas it exerts a significant impact on focused attention on game goals. Competence feeling, rather than focused attention on game goals, contributes to maladaptive behaviors within the gamified system. Originality/value This study is among the first to highlight maladaptive goal orientation in gamified learning. It distinguishes types of instant feedback and their effects, emphasizes the role of multisensory interaction and reveals how game objectives may override educational goals. The findings extend gamification theory and provide practical insights for designing learning systems that mitigate maladaptive outcomes.