Toxicology of nanoparticles: a review of current trends in the mitigation of the toxicity of nanomaterials

Nanoparticles, characterised by dimensions from 1 to 100 nm, possess distinct physicochemical properties compared to their larger-scale forms. These properties enable their deployment across fields such as medicine, environmental clean-up, and industrial applications. However, the growing prevalence of these materials has prompted concerns regarding their potential adverse effects on health and the environment. This review examines the toxicological aspects of nanoparticles, unravelling mechanisms underlying toxicity that include the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), disruption of cell membranes, release of toxic ions, and genetic damage. Furthermore, it discusses how specific attributes of nanoparticles—including their size, shape, surface characteristics, and chemical makeup—determine their toxicity profiles. Mitigation strategies are also discussed, such as modifying surface properties, optimising size and shape, and functionalizing with antioxidants. The review draws particular attention to green synthesis techniques, which leverage biological entities like plants and microorganisms to generate safer, biocompatible nanoparticles. Additionally, emerging directions in nanotoxicology, including AI-driven nanoparticle design, advanced toxicity modelling, and tailored nanomedicine approaches, are explored. By integrating recent advancements and proposing sustainable strategies, this comprehensible review presents a fresh approach to advancing