The geography of waste: Explaining the spatial variation of litter and dumpsites in Indonesia

Waste mismanagement is a major environmental and public health challenge, yet little is known about the factors driving its concentration in specific urban locations. This study adopts a systemic, spatially explicit approach to examine dumpsites and litter accumulation in Bandung, Indonesia. We (i) test whether proximity to Temporary Waste Disposal Sites (TPS) is associated with uncollected waste and collection coverage; (ii) identify built environment and socioeconomic characteristics related to household proximity to dumpsites and litter; and (iii) assess spatial and psychological factors linked to perceived environmental self-efficacy. Data were collected using georeferenced household surveys (<em>n</em> = 1539) and geotagged photo mapping of waste sites. Households within 100 m of a TPS were significantly less likely to report collection services (χ² = 16.35). Regression analyses show that uncollected waste was significantly more likely in areas without collection (<em>B</em> = –0.17 for dumpsites, <em>B</em> = –0.15 for litter), with inadequate roads (<em>B</em> = 0.25, 0.35), higher density (<em>B</em> = 0.20), and lower education (<em>B</em> = –0.15, –0.11). Lower environmental self-efficacy was significantly linked to poor roads (<em>B</em> = 0.15), inadequate wastewater (<em>B</em> = 0.50), lower education (<em>B</em> = –0.10), presence of dumpsites (<em>B</em> = 0.04), and perceived government inaction (<em>B</em> = 0.11). Our results suggest that uncollected waste reflects structural and spatial inequalities in service provision. Because the analysis is cross-sectional, findings represent associations rather than causal mechanisms. Nonetheless, the study contributes to (i) empirically linking uncollected waste to built environment conditions and environmental self-efficacy, and (ii) introducing a methodological innovation by combining mobile-based spatial surveys with waste mapping.