Pesticide Use in Cucumber Cultivation in Iran: A Systematic Review of Environmental and Health Impacts

Background: Rapid population growth is putting pressure on agriculture to meet food demands with limited land and water. This has led to increased crop production and greater use of agrochemicals, especially pesticides. However, their impact on biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health—particularly in communities near agricultural areas—is a growing concern. Methods: This systematic review followed three main steps: literature search, study selection, and data extraction. The searches were conducted in PubMed and Scopus using core keywords and synonyms. Relevant papers were screened by title, abstract, and full text. Also, VOSviewer software was used to visualize and assess bibliographic data. Results: Pesticides have both acute (e.g., nausea, headaches, skin and eye irritation) and chronic effects (e.g., respiratory issues, memory disorders, depression, cancer, and infertility). Residues in crops, groundwater, and surface water pose risks to humans and ecosystems. Improper pesticide management, failure to follow pre-harvest interval (PHI), and inadequate washing or peeling can result in residues exceeding maximum residue limits (MRLs), threatening food safety. Proposed strategies to mitigate these risks include reducing pesticide use, improving spraying practices, training farmers, adopting sustainable methods like integrated pest management, and leveraging new technologies. Simple practices like washing, peeling, and low-temperature storage can also reduce residues. Conclusion: Pesticide use should follow recommended guidelines. While transitioning to natural farming can reduce environmental and health impacts, social and cultural barriers limit its adoption in developing countries. Practical, context-specific solutions are urgently needed to reduce pesticide residues and ensure food safety.