Lands use dynamics and the role of war in the forest cover change in Marawi City, Philippines

The 2017 Marawi City Siege caused widespread destruction and displacement, along with significant environmental impacts, particularly on the forest ecosystems. This study assessed land cover changes in Marawi City, Philippines, associated with the 2017 armed conflict using Landsat satellite imagery from 2010, 2017, and 2024. Remote sensing analysis utilizing QGIS and Maximum Likelihood Classification generated six distinct land cover classes: forests, grassland, cropland, bare land, water bodies, and built-up areas. Results revealed significant post-conflict landscape transformations, with forest areas decreasing by 185.47 ha (-5.35%) between 2017 and 2024, while grassland declined by -778.43 ha (-21.72%). Simultaneously, agricultural lands and built-up areas increased substantially, with built-up areas expanding by 440.09 (+62.55%) by 2024. Accuracy assessment of the 2024 classification demonstrated 89.93% overall accuracy with a kappa coefficient of 0.86. Interviews with local environmental offices confirmed that the forced relocation of commercial and residential infrastructure due to the destruction of the city’s economic center and increased illegal logging activities for livelihood purposes like charcoal production significantly contributed to these changes. The accelerated post-conflict forest loss pattern in Marawi mirrors experiences documented in other post-conflict regions globally, where environmental concerns are often sidelined in favor of infrastructure development and economic recovery. These findings highlight the environmental vulnerabilities in conflict-affected areas and the necessity for sustained conservation efforts to promote ecological resilience and support post-conflict recovery. published by the Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences | JBES