Heterochronic transcription factor expression drives cone-dominant retina development in 13-lined ground squirrels

Evolutionary adaptation to diurnal vision in ground squirrels has led to the development of a cone-dominant retina, in stark contrast to the rod-dominant retinas of most mammals. The molecular mechanisms driving this shift remain largely unexplored. Here, we perform single-cell RNA sequencing and chromatin accessibility profiling (scATAC-Seq) across developmental retinal neurogenesis in the 13-lined ground squirrel (13LGS) to uncover the regulatory basis of this adaptation. We find that 13LGS cone photoreceptors arise not only from early-stage neurogenic progenitors, as seen in rod-dominant species like mice, but also from late-stage neurogenic progenitors. This extended period of cone generation is driven by a heterochronic shift in transcription factor expression, with cone-promoting factors such as <i>Onecut2</i>, <i>Pou2f1</i>, and <i>Zic3</i> remaining active in late-stage progenitors, and factors that promote cone differentiation such as <i>Thrb</i>, <i>Rxrg</i>, and <i>Mef2c</i> expressed precociously in late-stage neurogenic progenitors. Functional analyses reveal that <i>Zic3</i> and <i>Mef2c</i> are sufficient to promote cone and repress rod photoreceptor-specific gene expression and act through species-specific regulatory elements that drive their expression in late-stage progenitors. These results demonstrate that modifications to gene regulatory networks underlie the development of cone-dominant retinas and provide insight into mechanisms of sensory adaptation and potential strategies for cone photoreceptor regeneration in vision disorders.