Criminal-legal mechanisms for countering offences motivated by religious beliefs: A criminotheological approach

The aim of the study was a comprehensive analysis of criminal law mechanisms for countering crimes motivated by religious beliefs, using a criminotheological approach to identify contemporary trends in law enforcement practice, problems, and gaps in current legislation. In the course of the study, criminal law mechanisms for countering crimes motivated by religious beliefs were analysed using examples from Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and European countries. It was established that Kazakhstan showed a tendency towards adapting European standards, taking into account national specificities and the influence of regional factors, while in Pakistan, criminal prosecution was often accompanied by religious-political influence, which hindered an objective legal assessment of the acts. It was summarised that the effectiveness of criminal law counteraction to such crimes largely depended on the level of legal culture, the degree of secularism in the state, and the presence of an interdisciplinary approach. It was concluded that effective counteraction to crimes motivated by religious beliefs required a comprehensive approach combining criminal law, theological, and socio-preventive measures. Using the examples of Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and European countries, it was found that the most resilience in combating such crimes was demonstrated by those states where a balance was maintained between the protection of human rights, the secular nature of public order, and the possibility of state-religious dialogue. At the same time, excessive punitiveness (as in the case of Pakistan) or excessive liberalisation (in some European countries) could both intensify radical sentiments and hinder the criminal prosecution of offenders. Kazakhstan, being positioned between the two models, demonstrated a desire to develop its own strategy based on international experience but still required clearer theoretical and legal foundations