Requirements and Criteria for Selecting Metallic and Composite Materials for Cryogenic Tank Structures in Modern Launch Vehicles

Modern launch vehicles depend on liquid fuels such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen, which must be stored at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic tanks are essential for containing and transporting liquid hydrogen and serve as critical infrastructure across the defense, aerospace, and energy sectors. Given the extremely low boiling point of liquid hydrogen (20 K), materials used for these tanks must meet stringent requirements, including chemical compatibility with hydrogen, resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, and reliable mechanical and thermophysical performance at cryogenic temperatures. These characteristics are vital to ensuring structural integrity and operational reliability. This report provides a detailed evaluation of cryogenic materials currently used to store and transport liquid hydrogen. It reviews recent research advances, compiles performance data under low-temperature conditions, and identifies key material characterization and application gaps. The objective is to support informed material selection for future cryogenic tank development. Stainless steel remains the most widely used material for liquid hydrogen storage, with different grades selected based on specific operational demands. However, the growing need for space-based hydrogen systems has accelerated research into advanced cryogenic materials, including high-strength aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, and composite structures. Composite cryogenic tanks have been implemented in launch vehicles such as the DC-XA, X-33, and various platforms developed by SpaceX and in programs led by McDonnell Douglas and Lockheed Martin (LM). Notably, LM reported up to an 18% weight reduction by replacing metallic tanks with composite alternatives. This review critically evaluates cryogenic tank materials' applicability to next-generation launch vehicle designs.