An Overview of Cervical Cancer and Its Prevention

Cervical cancer remains a leading gynecological malignancy and an important global health challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income regions. The disease originates in the cervix when epithelial cells undergo genetic and molecular changes, most often triggered by persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) strains, mainly HPV-16 and HPV-18. While HPV infection is widespread, additional cofactors—including smoking, high parity, long-term oral contraceptive use, immunosuppression, and lack of screening—contribute to malignant progression. Histologically, squamous cell carcinoma represents the majority of cases, followed by adenocarcinoma, adenosquamous carcinoma, and rarer aggressive variants. Clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic disease detected through screening to symptoms such as abnormal bleeding, unusual discharge, pelvic pain, and advanced complications involving the urinary or gastrointestinal tract. Diagnostic evaluation integrates screening tools (Pap smear and HPV DNA testing), colposcopy with targeted biopsy, and imaging for staging. Treatment strategies depend on disease stage, ranging from fertility-sparing surgery in early cases to chemoradiotherapy and systemic therapy for advanced or recurrent disease. In recent years, therapeutic advances have significantly expanded options for patients with persistent or metastatic disease. These include immune checkpoint inhibitors, antibody–drug conjugates, precision-targeted therapies guided by molecular profiling, and experimental immunotherapies such as therapeutic HPV vaccines. Integration of these modalities into multidisciplinary care has improved survival and quality-of-life outcomes. This review highlights the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnostic pathways, and evolving therapeutic landscape of cervical cancer, with emphasis on recent innovations that may contribute to the World Health Organization’s goal of eliminating cervical cancer as a public health problem.