Sustainable Lithium Extraction Pathways: A Multicriteria Comparison of Conventional and Geothermal DLE Technologies with Focus on Italy and the UK

Rising lithium demand, driven by the energy transition and the surge in electric-vehicle adoption, has spurred the European Union to seek ways of securing a sustainable, autonomous supply. Within this policy horizon, the present thesis compares conventional and emerging extraction routes through a multicriteria assessment (MCA), with special emphasis on the promise of closed-loop geothermal systems in Italy. After surveying global market dynamics and the main technological and geopolitical trends, the study outlines three extraction pathways: hard-rock mining from spodumene-rich pegmatites (predominant in Australia), solar-pond evaporation of brines in South-American salars, and a family of Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) techniques with a focus on geothermal fluids. The MCA then evaluates four projects: Greenbushes in Australia, the Salar de Atacama in Chile, Cross Lanes in Cornwall and Cesano in Lazio, against indicators grouped into political, environmental, social and economic categories. Each indicator is graded on a five-class scale; to capture governance differences that shape regulation, project timelines and stakeholder engagement, the political pillar draws on the World Bank’s World Governance Indicators. Although DLE is less mature technologically, it outperforms traditional methods on most environmental metrics, notably land occupation, water consumption and waste-rock generation, with energy use the lone exception. Anglo-Saxon contexts score better on social criteria, largely thanks to long-standing mining traditions, terrain suited to extraction and solid participatory mechanisms. Economically, geothermal projects entail higher up front capital expenditure than established techniques but enjoy comparable or lower operating costs because they require fewer personnel and less maintenance. Lithium grades in geothermal brines are lower, yet higher recovery efficiencies and markedly shorter extraction cycles allow better utilisation of the resource and a swifter response to market shocks. The geological appraisal focuses on Lazio, where Mesozoic carbonate formations, drilled by ENEL in the 1970s, host brines containing about 350 mg L⁻¹ lithium at the Cesano 1 well, values already attractive for sorbent-based DLE. High temperature and brine chemistry further strengthen this prospect. The thesis next examines Italy’s transposition of the EU Critical Raw Materials Act, enacted as Law 115/2024 to streamline permits for critical-mineral exploration and exploitation. Here regulatory complexity emerges: geothermal extraction and conventional mining fall under separate statutes, Legislative Decree 22/2010 and the 1927 Mining Code, whose coordination is essential for hybrid projects. Geothermal lithium exposes grey areas, especially article 1(9) of Decree 22/2010, which lets either framework prevail according to the relative economic weight of heat and mineral. Environmental authorisations (EIA, Habitats and integrated permits) remain pivotal, though recent amendments have simplified them for strategic minerals. A GIS-based map of the Bracciano area overlays geological and socio-environmental layers to identify tracts where lithium recovery and power generation are most compatible with ecological and landscape constraints. Finally, the thesis frames geothermal lithium within the concept of social licence to operate. In Cornwall, strong public support rests on a rich mining heritage, the prospect of skilled jobs and a narrative that links extraction to the green transition; recent surveys show no significant conflict. Around Bracciano–Campagnano, by contrast, the licence is still emerging: lacking positive precedents, residents associate the territory with lake and park values and fear risks to water, seismicity and scenery. Early, transparent engagement, shared economic benefits, local liaison offices with regional and municipal bodies are therefore recommended, together with clauses that equitably redistribute royalties. If these governance steps accompany technological demonstration, closed-loop geothermal DLE could represent a low-impact, resilient lithium supply for Europe.