In the Footsteps of Moose: Using Non-Invasive Techniques to Identify Cause-Specific Calf Mortalities and Evaluate Moose (<em>Alces Alces</em>) Movements Pertaining to Mineral Lick Locations on Ancestral Lands of the Grand Portage Ojibwe

Following a sharp moose (Alces alces; mooz, Anishinaabemowin, Ojibwe language) population decline in northeastern Minnesota during the early 2000s, the Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa initiated a long-term moose collaring effort to assess survival and mortality causes. Moose are a culturally important species to the Band, with annual subsistence hunts held on the Reservation and adjacent 1854 Ceded Territory. Continued research guides culturally appropriate management decisions aimed at bolstering calf and adult survival, helping to preserve this moose in Minnesota today and for subsequent generations. Chapter 1 identifies cause-specific calf mortality rates in this multi-predator system using minimally invasive monitoring and search techniques. From 2020 to 2024, GPS-collared cow movements were observed for recognizable patterns indicative of parturition and calf mortality. Conservation detection dog (CDD) teams investigated all suspected calf mortalities (n = 61) and birth sites (n = 62). Probable causes of mortality were attributed to 28 wolf (Canis lupus, ma’iingan) predations, 17 American black bear (Ursus americanus; makwa) predations, 3 predations from an unknown source, 5 health related or still-birth cases, and 2 unknown causes. Probable cause was assigned to 79% of mortalities, most attributed to predation. The pooled Kaplan-Meier calf survival rate to 38-days was 52% (95% CI 44 – 62%) but varied across years. Chapter 2 describes methods used to identify mineral lick sites and analyzes moose GPS movement data to characterize use. Twelve mineral lick locations were identified based on repeated ungulate visitation to aquatic landscape features. Field visits and camera traps confirmed these as lick sites by capturing animals licking and consuming soil. These nutrient-rich locations attract ungulates during biologically demanding periods; however, the overlap of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; waawaashkeshiwag) and moose at these sites raises concern for parasite transmission. Using GPS collar data, recursive movements were analyzed to known licks by 106 moose (79 cows, 27 bulls) between 10 February 2013 and 28 January 2025, identifying 705 visits. Visit duration, time between visits, step length when entering and exiting licks, were assessed, along with variations by sex, season, time of day, and individual lick. The implication of these hotspots as ecological traps is of the utmost concern for wildlife managers and the Grand Portage Band, who strive to sustain this culturally significant keystone species on the landscape amid ecological threats.