Conservation Agriculture and sustainability of smallholder farms in Zimbabwe: Insights from a nationwide survey

Conservation Agriculture (CA) can promote sustainable smallholder farming by improving yields, enhancing climate resilience and reducing the adverse environmental impact of production. Although the economic dimensions of CA have been extensively studied, its contributions to social and environmental outcomes, such as labour demand and soil health, remain largely unexplored. This study investigates the implementation of CA practices on cultivated plots and their contributions to labour use, productivity, and soil erosion. Using a nationally representative household plot-panel dataset of 2117 households and 10,075 cultivated plots in Zimbabwe, multinomial endogenous switching regression models, incorporating an ordered probit selection rule to address selection bias, were employed to analyse the uptake and associations of varying levels of CA adoption on labour use, productivity, and soil erosion. CA adoption packages (compared to non-adoption) are associated with improved cereal productivity under normal rainfall but provide limited gains for legumes and under flooding. CA packages characterized by increased minimum tillage and herbicide use are linked to labour savings and a reduced family labour burden, yet also to a greater dependence on external ( hired/exchange ) labour. Minimal CA adoption (using only one practice) is linked to higher labour use, lower productivity, and increased soil erosion compared to non-adoption. CA adoption on flood-exposed plots is correlated with increased soil erosion. Exposure to climate shocks, poor soil fertility, and better resource endowments are associated with higher CA adoption, while insecure land tenure and limited market access are linked to lower adoption. Tailoring CA interventions to local conditions and structural realities is essential for achieving overall sustainability. • We evaluate CA practices on cultivated plots and their effects on labour, productivity, and soil erosion. • CA package adoption improves cereal productivity with moderate rainfall but has limited benefits for legumes. • CA packages with minimum tillage and herbicides reduce family labour but rely more on hired/exchange labour. • CA’s ability to limit soil erosion is limited, especially under extreme rain and low CA adoption. • Climate shocks and resource availability boost CA uptake, while insecure land tenure and poor market access hinder it.