ADVANCES IN 3D PRINTING OF POLY(Ε-CAPROLACTONE) (PCL)-BASED SCAFFOLDS FOR BONE TISSUE ENGINEERING: A MINI REVIEW

Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) is a widely used, FDA-accepted, slow-degrading polyester well suited to 3D printing via extrusion methods for bone tissue engineering. Recent years have seen rapid development of PCL-based printed scaffolds combined with osteoinductive fillers (hydroxyapatite, β-TCP, doped-HA), surface modifications (polydopamine, collagen), and multifunctional additives (graphene/GO, magnetic or plasmonic particles) to improve osteogenesis, mechanical performance and biological activity. Low-temperature and solvent-assisted workflows, hybrid printing with hydrogels, and post-print functionalization have expanded the design space and preserved bioactivity. Although promising preclinical outcomes are reported, key barriers remain matching mechanical properties to host bone, controlling degradation while enabling timely bone in-growth, achieving reliable vascularization, and navigating regulatory/scale-up challenges. Targeted strategies now focus on hierarchical porosity, composite formulations (PCL/HA, PCL/β-TCP, PCL/GO), and clinically relevant case reports that point toward near-term translational opportunities.