From Ideal to Real Types : An empirical analysis of contrasting models of democratic self-defence in Europe

This study examines the empirical application of democratic self-defence models in Europe by transforming theoretical ideal types into real types. The research focuses on three contrasting models: militant democracy, the procedural model and the social model, each presenting different approaches to counteract antidemocratic forces. Using operational indicators derived from the models’ core tenets, the study classifies nine European democracies in accordance with the democratic self-defence models. The findings reveal that while Spain exemplifies pure militant democracy, most countries exhibit characteristics of semi-militant democracies. Conversely, Denmark and Sweden emerge as distinct representatives of the social model while Finland shows a hybrid version of militant democracy and the social model. An example of the procedural model was not found in this study. This work offers a foundation for future research into the practical implications of democratic self-defence and hybrid approaches, contributing to the ongoing discourse on safeguarding democracy in contemporary politics.