Play to Pay: Over het Design, de Consumptie en de Productie van Gokken in Games

Over the past decades games have become increasingly gambling-like or gamblified in their design, challenging established notions of gambling. Given the popularity and acceptance of gaming, this blurring of boundaries has raised concerns over players—including minors—being exposed to gambling elements. This necessitates a thorough understanding of how gambling structurally manifests itself in games. In Chapter 1, I argue that scientific literature on gaming-gambling design falls short in three areas; (1) reconciling the insights produced in different disciplines relevant to this phenomenon, (2) acknowledging player agency, and (3) accounting for the sociotechnical context of game production. To address these shortcomings, Chapter 2 introduces a mediation framework to study the integration of gambling elements in games as an interplay of three mutual shaping forces: artifacts, practices, and arrangements. Chapter 3 on Artifacts offers two situated, material analyses of game design. In Study 1, I formulate a comprehensive taxonomy of gambling in 20 contemporary games, including loot boxes, social casino elements, gambling-themed activities, and token wagering. Study 2 provides a systematic, step-by-step 'walkthrough' of FIFA 22, discussing how these features are embedded within platform ecosystems and elicit specific scenarios of use for players. Chapter 4 on Practices continues this focus on players. Specifically, Study 3 takes their behaviors as object of empirical investigation by means of a survey of Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking Belgian) adolescents. Across 453 responses, I show how players adopt specific practices in response to local legislation impacting the usability and accessibility of games with loot boxes. In doing so, I raise questions about the effectiveness of blanket ban approaches to gambling in games and broader digital media governance. As the scope of my work had by now expanded well beyond material artifacts and toward overarching systems (like legislation), Chapter 5 on Arrangements explores the self-regulatory role taken up by the industry behind the object of our concern. Through fieldwork and interviewing 17 game creators from various large companies, Study 4 categorizes attitudes and practices held by professionals that may help mitigate risks associated with games and contemplate player wellbeing. Zooming in on commitments made by industry actors, Study 5 then considers how game design students are sensibilized to the potential impact their creations may have on players. Through textual analyses of 13 institutional programs and interviews with nine educational actors in Belgium, this final study elucidates the critical potential of teaching ethics and providing actionable recommendations for educational institutions to help prepare creators navigate complex ethical issues—including but not limited to gambling—in today's gaming landscape. In Chapter 6 I summarize each study's findings, concluding that how gambling manifests itself in games is inherently dynamic; malleable, pervasive, unrestricted, and contentious. As games continue to develop, it is my hope that this dissertation can contribute to a multifaceted and future-proof understanding of game design; what it entails, how we navigate it and how it can be governed, and how we can ensure that play remains rewarding—whether by chance or not.