Faltered States: The Rise, Fall, and Containment of Psychedelic Science in the United States

This thesis traces the history of psychedelic science in the United States and its implications for policymaking. In the postwar period, psychedelic researchers were enabled by a unique convergence of optimism in medical science and structural flexibility. But their hope blinded them to the deeper tensions of their field. As institutions grew increasingly rigid and risk-averse, the space for psychedelics began to close. Some scientists responded by fortifying the walls around them, developing socially and professionally acceptable research methods. Others tried to escape these walls entirely. But neither approach could prevent psychedelics from being squeezed out of formal inquiry. Yet at the margins, exploration continued and expanded. These explorers gradually wedged themselves back inside the bounds of legitimacy. Still, even as new pioneers broadened the scope of sanctioned investigation, they faced a terrain shaped by old boundaries. Science remained beholden to the state, which continued to determine what knowledge could be pursued and who could pursue it. Seventy-five years after their introduction into mainstream science, and fifty years since their criminalization, psychedelics have once again garnered widespread attention. As we develop new policies regarding substances with complex histories, tales of the past become ever more important. The history of psychedelic science in the United States reveals the epistemic and human costs of institutional conservatism. Democratized experimentation offers alternative paths for healing–a fundamental right and an urgent need in an era of widespread mental distress.