The Divine Call: Theophanies of Athena and YHWH in Comparative Perspective

Problem While parallels between Ancient Near East (ANE) literature and the Hebrew Bible are well established in contemporaneous scholarship, the Greek corpus has received little attention in recent studies. This paper addresses this gap by investigating a theophany scene from each corpus, in order to compare how the human-deity encounter is presented in Exodus 3:1–4:17 and Odyssey 1:96–324. Method The textual analysis of each scene employs a narratological framework. It takes both texts synchronically and grounds its comparison on the narrative formal elements, structures, and functions. The similarities and differences between each theophany are presented by their emerging themes and narratological elements. Results The analysis of the theophanic encounters through each text's narrative elements and structures reveals similar themes—alienation, ancestry, honor, and enmity—as well as distinctions in the portrayal of divine-human encounters, motivations, and narrative functions. Conclusions In the analyzed pericopes, Athena is portrayed as a proactive visitor whose interventions aim to protect and restore the honor of Odysseus’s household, while YHWH appears as a responsive rescuer whose desire for name-making reveals interest in sustained engagement in human affairs. The settings reinforce this contrast: YHWH’s presence is embedded within spaces accessible to humans, while Athena operates from the distant Olympus. Moses functions as a publicized mediator in a ripple-effect model of revelation, whereas Telemachus acts as a disguised divine agent in a more private exchange. The theophanies also diverge in rhetorical function: YHWH’s is interruptive and persuasive, appealing to sensorial experiences to overcome human resistance; Athena’s is strategic, using disguise and speech to prompt immediate action. In both narratives, the theophany reorients the protagonists into a journey to redefine home in different directions: the Odyssey moves toward home reclamation, while Exodus moves toward homemaking. The theme of enmity furthers divergence—Athena escalates opposition against the suitors to justify retributive justice, while Exodus decentralizes the enemy’s role, basing YHWH’s justice impulse on the rescuing and restoration of his people. These findings reveal deep conceptual differences in portrayals of divinity, relationality, and human agency. The study proposes that YHWH’s dialogical character, rooted in the Hebrew Bible’s prose narrative structure, opens fruitful ground for further theological reflection. Comparative approaches such as this affirm the value of integrating Greek texts into the broader discussions of the Hebrew Bible and, consequently, the ANE.