Gender in de hoofdrol: Een exploratief onderzoek naar de relatie tussen gender-intensieve media en gender attitudes en overtuigingen

Historically, Western societies have been permeated by a dichotomous view of masculinity and femininity, with clear roles and expectations for men and women. In some cases, media mirror these traditional gender ideas, reflecting traditional masculine and feminine representations across various forms such as television, news media, social media, and pornographic material. Repeated exposure to gender-stereotypical messages from socialization agents, including media, shapes traditional gender schemas. Stable gender beliefs and expectations can restrict the development of competences, interests, and aspirations, but can also result in less acceptance for those deviating from gender norms. In other instances, media may play a proactive role in stimulating a gradual shift in society. Media can increase acceptance of gender diversity by including counter-stereotypical representations, with male and female characters portraying traits and roles typically associated with the other gender group, and by including more gender-diverse characters. Given media's omnipresence in our daily lives and its socializing role, scholars have repeatedly examined the relationship between media and gender attitudes and beliefs. However, previous research has done so without systematically focusing on the intensity of the gender representations. Media that prominently feature gender messages - whether stereotypical or counter-stereotypical - may impact gender attitudes and beliefs in distinct ways. Applying a intensity-focused perspective could provide valuable insights when analyzing media relationships. The overall aim of this dissertation was to systematically explore the relationship between gender-intensive media and gender attitudes and beliefs. The impact of exposure to gender-stereotypical as well as counter-stereotypical and gender-diverse media representations was examined. In addition, media influences are likely dependent on contextual cues, and therefore, the contributing roles of factors on personal and social levels were investigated as well. Moreover, the relationship between gender-intensive media and gender attitudes and beliefs was examined across various media types and across various ages and developmental life stages. This dissertation presents five empirical studies using cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methods among Flemish preadolescents, late adolescents, and adults. Part one consists of two studies examining the impact of exposure to gender-stereotypical media, including pornography and traditional feminine and masculine self-presentations of social media role models. Part two comprises three studies examining the impact of exposure to counter-stereotypical media, including news media on transgender celebrities, an educational television program on gender diversity, and an entertainment television program with a transgender character. This PhD project offers valuable empirical and theoretical contributions. The results consistently demonstrate that gender-intensive media can significantly impact gender attitudes and beliefs, independent of context and age or life stage. This suggests that media with prominent gender representations may increase the likelihood of affecting gender attitudes and beliefs. However, this raises questions on the necessity of investigating the complex contextual influences. Moreover, the dissertation emphasizes the need for a theoretical framework specifically focusing on exposure to (gender-)intensive media.