CARDIORENAL SYNDROME: DEFINITION, PREVALENCE, DIAGNOSIS, AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) is characterized by the coexistence of acute or chronic dysfunction of the heart and kidneys, leading to a cascade of feedback mechanisms that cause damage to both organs. Clinical and epidemiological studies have revealed a close relationship between the kidneys and the heart with various bidirectional and dynamic mechanisms, including hemodynamic interactions in heart failure (HF). Damage/dysfunction of the cardiovascular system can lead to kidney damage and dysfunction due to various mechanisms; in turn, kidney dysfunction can worsen the functioning of the cardiovascular system, affecting both the circulatory system and the heart. Thus, patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) often also suffer from chronic kidney disease (CKD), and vice versa.