National cyberspace and cyber operations

Historically, warfare has occurred in various operating environments, traditionally referred to as domains: land; sea; air; and outer space. In recent times information and cyberspace have emerged as additional domains. National cyberspace can be categorized in six dimensions: military; political; economic; societal; technological; and citizen. Offensive cyber operations are increasing in diversity, sophistication and frequency. The availability of disruptive technologies to both attackers and defenders has heightened the complexity of these attacks and made attribution more challenging. This is particularly evident in Russia’s cyber operations in Ukraine.