Illegal Eel Trade

The illegal trade in European eels (Anguilla anguilla) has been identified as one of the most significant wildlife crimes globally, in terms of both the quantity of specimens traded and the profits generated. However, this specific wildlife crime remained rather unnoticed by the public, only receiving attention following a series of high-profile arrests and seizures in the mid-2010s which coincided with the first scientific investigations. In chapter 1, the research gap was identified and the background on the life history of eels, exploitation, as well as eel aquaculture was provided. Subsequently, it was explored why eel trade became one of the most significant wildlife crimes and how authorities responded to it. Chapter 2 (Kaifu et al., 2019) examines the extent of glass eel trafficking, which is estimated to account for approximately a quarter of the European eel stock. Furthermore, the chapter provides an overview of notable enforcement operations and examines the relationship between glass eel trafficking and aquaculture demand in Asia. The principal outcome of the research is the identification of a significant discrepancy between the potential farm production based on officially reported glass eel input and the farm production figures reported by the FAO. Chapter 3 (Stein et al., 2016) presents the first genetic evidence of glass eel smuggling from Europe to Hong Kong. For this, COI barcoding was used to identify glass eels confiscated at Hong Kong International Airport as European eels. In combination with other smuggling cases, it is concluded that Hong Kong is likely to be an important hub for the illegal eel trade. Furthermore, the suitability of COI barcoding for determining eel species, factors influencing the smuggling route and the potential of isotope analysis for tracing eels are discussed. Chapter 4 (Stein et al., 2024) provides a summary of the actions undertaken by Europol's Operation LAKE, which commenced in 2016 with the objective of combating eel trafficking. Until mid-2023, the operation resulted in 728 arrests and the seizure of approximately 82 million glass eels. The publication aims to enhance the understanding of a highly profitable form of organised crime and to promote cooperation between law enforcement and civil society. This can only be achieved by sharing with the public the distilled results, lessons learned and recommendations derived from operational activities. Chapter 5 (Stein et al., 2021) explores the presence of European eel in unagi kabayaki products derived from Chinese aquaculture. A total of 108 eel products from China were purchased and subjected to analysis, with only one identified as European eel, in violation of EU and CITES regulations. However, the study underscores the issue of non-compliance with EU labelling requirements and the necessity for more rigorous molecular genetic control. The content of chapter 6 (Nijman and Stein, 2022) is a meta-analysis of studies that have all tested fish products outside Europe. A significant proportion of European eel was identified. The authors emphasise the need for stricter enforcement of existing trade regulations and improved labelling standards to ensure the safety and sustainability of food. In chapter 7, the findings were discussed in the context of the identified research gap. This included an analysis of the contribution and potential role of scientific methodologies in the context of combating eel trafficking as well as an examination of the potential impacts of eel trafficking on anguillid stocks.