Morphine Analysis in Biological Samples: A Systematic Review

Background: The analysis of morphine in biological samples is pivotal in clinical and forensic toxicology and indicates drug exposure, metabolism, and toxicological profile.Method: This systematic review explores the recent analytical techniques that have used the detection and quantification of morphine in forensic toxicological investigations. Articles were collected from PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar electronic databases from 2011 until 30th September 2024. They were searched using a systematic search of English keywords including: “Morphine” OR “Analysis” OR “Analytical techniques” OR “Analytical innovations” OR “Methods” AND “Biological samples” OR “Biological matrices”. The selection criteria were based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses).Results: From 1200 articles detected in the early systematic search, 30 articles met the inclusion criteria and included in this study. The results showed that the advanced hyphenated analytical methods couple with mass spectrometry (MS) such as Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and related tandem GC-MS and LC-MS with recent sample preparation methods such as Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe (QuEChERS) and Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro Extraction (DLLME) are the most common analytical methods for detection of morphine in biological samples.Conclusion: Due to increase of morphine abuse as a worldwide concern, use of advanced analytical techniques with high sensitivity and precision in forensic toxicology setting should be recommended.