Summary for population genetic parameters.

<div><p>Reproductive success can be attributed to both resident and non-resident males in non-human primates. However, reproductive success of non-resident males has rarely been investigated at an individual level. As resident males achieve different degree of reproductive success with regard to various factors, such as male dominance relationships or female mate choice, the degree of reproductive success for non-resident males may vary between individuals. As male reproductive success is highly skewed towards specific individuals, the percentage of similar-aged paternal siblings within groups is expected to increase. However, the extent to which each male contributes to the production of cohorts of paternal siblings remains unclear. Here we examined the paternity of offspring born over five consecutive years in a free-ranging group of Japanese macaques <i>Macaca fuscata</i> on Shodoshima Island, Kagawa Prefecture. Genotypes of 87 individuals at 16 autosomal microsatellite loci were analyzed and paternity of 34 offspring was successfully assigned to a single candidate father. We quantitatively assessed paternity success for resident and a few non-resident males whose genetic samples were successfully collected. We quantitatively assessed the percentages of paternal siblings in the same age cohorts produced by those males. Non-resident males sired similar percentage of offspring compared to resident males. A large prime-aged non-resident male was the most successful sire among males in two of the five years. These results provide new insights that male reproductive success could be highly skewed toward a specific non-resident male. Subadult males had a lower percentage of paternity success, which may be because females may prefer physically mature males. Various males, including non-resident males, contributed to the creation of paternal sibling in the same age cohort. The overall results highlighted that not only resident but also non-resident males play an important role in shaping within-group kin structures.</p></div>