Age effect on performance.

<div> Listening to conversations and remembering their content is a highly demanding task, especially in noisy environments. Previous research has mainly focused on short-term memory using simple cognitive tasks with unrelated words or digits. The present study investigates the listeners’ short-term memory and listening effort in conversations under different listening conditions, with and without soft or moderate noise. To this end, participants were administered a dual-task paradigm, including a primary listening task, in which conversations between two talkers were presented, and an unrelated secondary task. In Experiment 1, this secondary task was a visual number-judgment task, whereas in Experiments 2 and 3, it was a vibrotactile pattern recognition task. All experiments were conducted in a quiet environment or under continuous broadband noise. For the latter, the signal-to-noise ratio in Experiments 1 and 2 was +10 dB (soft-noise condition), while in Experiment 3 it was -3 dB (moderate-noise condition). In Experiments 1 and 2, short-term memory of running speech and listening effort were unaffected by soft-noise listening conditions. In Experiment 3, however, the moderate-noise listening condition impaired performance in the primary listening task, while performance in the vibrotactile secondary task was unaffected. This pattern of results could suggest that the moderate-noise listening condition, with a signal-to-noise ratio of -3 dB, required increased listening effort compared to the soft-noise and quiet listening conditions. These findings indicate that listening situations with moderate noise can reduce short-term memory of heard conversational content and increase listening effort, even when the speech signals remain highly intelligible. </div>