Key topological metrics obtained for chorionic vessels generated up to 8 branching generations with different tolerances in parent-daughter branching angles (<i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub>).

<p>While smaller <i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub> values are associated with lower computational times, they hinder vessel generation as highlighted by a smaller number of vessels. In contrast, increasing <i>tol</i><sub><i>l</i></sub> values lead to a greater number of generated vessels, but at a much higher computational cost. Therefore, a middle range <i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub> (e.g. 0.2182 radians, equivalent to 25–35% of chorionic vessel parent-daughter branching angles) offers a balanced compromise between optimal topological metrics and computational efficiency.</p> <p>(PDF)</p>