Subnational protected areas in China experienced disproportional increases in anthropogenic activities from 2000 to 2020

Protected areas (PAs) are among the most effective means of protecting biodiversity. Effectively and sustainably managing PAs has become an urgent priority in China. However, there is currently a lack of comparable long-term quantitative understanding of anthropogenic activities across different levels of PAs in China. This study employs the human footprint (HF) as a comprehensive indicator, using various methods, including buffer analysis, piecewise linear regression, and the InVEST model. The aim of this study is to quantify the dynamic changes in anthropogenic activities within over 2,000 PAs of different levels in China at both the national and regional levels from 2000 to 2020. This study revealed that over the 20-year period, the average HF pressure within PAs generally increased, with the average HF value increasing from 18.44 to 21.28. Among them, subnational PAs face greater and continuously increasing HF pressures than do national PAs. In 2020, the average anthropogenic activity in municipal and county-level PAs was 2.2–2.3 times greater than that in national PAs. Over the 20-year period, the growth rate of anthropogenic activities in municipal and county-level PAs was 14.6%–16.4%, which is 2.4%–4.2% higher than that of national PAs. In the future, it is necessary to strengthen the management of lower level PAs and implement different management strategies for areas affected by varying degrees of anthropogenic activities. Additionally, further construction and improvement of China’s PA system are needed to ensure the effective and sustainable protection of biodiversity. Subnational PAs are facing greater and increasingly significant anthropogenic activity pressures.During 2000-2020, the average human footprint within PAs in China exhibited an overall fluctuating upward trend.The average human footprint decreases as levels of PAs increase. Subnational PAs are facing greater and increasingly significant anthropogenic activity pressures. During 2000-2020, the average human footprint within PAs in China exhibited an overall fluctuating upward trend. The average human footprint decreases as levels of PAs increase.