In Search of Paintings with Advanced Visual Errors According to Ibn al-Haytham's Account in al-Manāẓir

Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen, c. 965 to 1040 AD), a mathematician, astromomer and physicist of Islamic civilization, in his book "Al-Manāẓir" (The Optics), discusses the phenomenon of errors in direct observation. He refers to paintings where animals, specific individuals, plants, and some other objects are realistically depicted, conforming to their natural appearance. Given that during the 10th and 11th centuries, Islamic civilization had not reached such a level of realism in paintings, it raises the question: to which paintings does Ibn al-Haytham refer in his book within the Islamic civilization? The significance of Ibn al-Haytham's account, besides providing insights into the history of painting and its developments, could also offer a fresh narrative on the formation of painting during the Renaissance in Europe. This research aims to identify the paintings Ibn al-Haytham discusses by referencing historical reports and comparing them with archaeological explorations in the twentieth century. Historically, the writings left by al-Fārābī (known in the Western world as Alpharabius, c. 870 to 950 AD, an early Islamic philosopher and music theorist) and al-Masʿūdī (a historian, geographer and traveler, c. 896 to 956 AD) concerning the paintings banished during the early centuries of Christianity in the Fayum region of Egypt are the most important clues for identifying those paintings. Ibn al-Haytham's extended stay in Egypt on one hand, and the discovery and identification of mummy paintings in the Fayum region on the other, provide a comparative ground and pursuit of Ibn al-Haytham's account in "Al-Manāẓir". This research, through historical analysis and comparing technical features of paintings such as technique, material, represented elements, etc., with Ibn al-Haytham's account, seeks to understand the relationship between the paintings and Ibn al-Haytham's report. The artworks under consideration are divided into two groups: the first group comprises mosaics (e.g., mosaic works of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and the Palace of Ibn Hisham), wall paintings (such as the Qusayr 'Amra frescoes or the Capella Palatina), sculptures (like the sculptures of Umayyad and Abbasid palaces), and luster ware (produced in Samarra and Egypt) dating back to pre-12th century Islamic civilization, and the second group consists of a large collection of mummy paintings retrieved from the Fayum region of Egypt, housed in major museums worldwide, especially the British Museum in London and the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Access to all these artworks has been done through the online platforms of art collections. The research demonstrates that in the absence of any historical information about other painting traditions, it can be said that the Fayum mummy paintings were created within the framework of the same painting tradition that Ibn al-Haytham speaks of in "Al-Manāẓir". Emphasis on the accurate depiction of specific and recognizable individuals' faces, the clarity of wrinkles and lines on the skin, adorned and styled curly wigs, botanical decorations resembling crowns on heads, and individuals' hairstyles are among the common features between the Fayum mummy paintings and Ibn al-Haytham's report.