The evolution of local adaptation in long-lived species.

Many species experience heterogeneous environments and adapt genetically to local conditions. The extent of such local adaptation depends on a balance between divergent selection and gene flow, but also on other factors such as phenotypic plasticity or the genetic architecture of traits. Here, we explore the role of life history in this process. We develop a quantita-tive genetics model and run individual-based simulations to contrast the evolution of local adaptation between short- and long-lived species. We show that local adaptation varies with a species' life cycle and how this cycle modulates the scheduling of selection and dispersal among stages. When a longer generation time is associated with more frequent events of selection than dispersal, local adaptation is more pronounced in long-lived than in short-lived species. Contrastingly, if dispersal occurs more frequently than selection, long-lived species evolve weaker local adaptation. Our simulations confirm these findings and further show how longevity shapes additive genetic variance, effective dispersal between patches, and the genetic response at quantitative trait loci. Taken together, our results suggest that the effect of longevity on local adaptation depends on the specifics of a species' life cycle, potentially explaining why current meta-analyses have not consistently detected this effect.