Spatial analysis of the trade-offs between forest ecosystem services and disservices in the Bale Mountains eco-region, Southeast Ethiopia

Forests provide ecosystem services (ESs) and ecosystem disservices (EDs) to the local community living in and around the forest. This study examined the trade-offs between forest ESs and EDs among communities living at different proximities (<1 km and >3 km) to forest edges in the Bale Mountains Eco-Region of Southeast Ethiopia by assessing how local perceptions of ESs and EDs vary spatially and influence community engagement in forest management. Household surveys, focus group discussions, and field observations were conducted along six pair-wise transects across six selected villages, enabling systematic and comparative collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. Logistic regression was employed to identify socio-demographic and biophysical factors influencing farmers’ participation in forest/tree management. Results show that forests are vital to rural livelihoods, offering water (93.9%), firewood (89.4%), construction wood (89.4%), and shade for coffee production (87.9%). Perceived benefits were significantly higher among residents near forest edges (χ² = 37.22, df = 5, P < 0.05). About 59.1% of respondents reported engaging in forest/tree management, influenced significantly by education and family size. However, forests were also seen as sources of EDs, mainly crop-raiding by wild mammals like porcupines (86.4%), bush pigs (83.3%), and warthogs (72.7%), with maize being the most affected crop. These impacts were notably higher near forest edges (χ² = 45.06, df = 2, P < 0.05). Crop guarding (93.9%) was the most common mitigation strategy, alongside fencing and tree clearing. The study concludes that while forest ESs support rural livelihoods, associated EDs, particularly crop-raiding, pose serious challenges, leading to trade-offs that may drive deforestation and affect sustainability. Effective, community-driven forest and agricultural management strategies are essential to balance ESs and EDs. Future research should adopt comprehensive approaches to better understand community perceptions and support sustainable human–wildlife coexistence in forested landscapes.