Key topological metrics obtained for villous vessels with different tolerances in parent-daughter branching angles (<i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub>).

<p>While smaller <i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub> values are associated with lower computational times, they hinder vessel generation as highlighted by fewer branching generations and lower vascular density. This is also quantified by distances between vascular nodes and the basal plate (Distance 1) or between different vascular nodes (Distance 2). Increasing <i>tol</i><sub><i>l</i></sub> values results in more branching generations, higher vascular density, and greater vessel spatial distribution, though at a higher computational cost. Therefore, a middle range <i>tol</i><sub><i>θ</i></sub> (e.g. 0.1178 radians, equivalent to 15% of villous vessel parent-daughter branching angles) offers a balanced compromise between optimal topological metrics and computational efficiency.</p> <p>(PDF)</p>